WEBVTT 00:01.400 --> 00:03.100 It's autumn, 1517. 00:03.880 --> 00:07.960 To the great consternation of his bishop and the pope, Martin Luther, the young 00:07.960 --> 00:12.260 lecturer of the University of Wittenberg, publishes his 95-point thesis. 00:12.920 --> 00:17.660 The Disputation on the Power and Efficacy of Indulgences is reprinted in thousands 00:17.660 --> 00:21.680 of copies and reaches all the major European countries within a year. 00:22.660 --> 00:23.980 But how did we get here? 00:24.780 --> 00:28.460 In 1517 the Catholic Church is still in full control. 00:29.460 --> 00:34.380 Catholic means universal, a likely title considering the Church's monopoly over the 00:34.380 --> 00:36.280 minds and souls of the Western world. 00:36.580 --> 00:38.220 Which is certainly universal. 00:38.920 --> 00:39.540 Or is it? 00:41.180 --> 00:43.860 By the late Middle Ages the Church was in a crisis. 00:44.800 --> 00:48.140 Popes, the figureheads of the Catholic Church, were figureheads of corruption. 00:49.000 --> 00:52.940 They were often no better than worldly princes, only caring about wealth and 00:52.940 --> 00:56.280 power, not shying away from war, treachery and torture. 00:56.940 --> 01:00.600 They often kept concubines, fathered children and some were even open 01:00.600 --> 01:01.720 homosexuals. 01:03.040 --> 01:05.980 Cardinals, bishops and archbishops were not much better. 01:06.720 --> 01:10.740 Being almost exclusively aristocrats, they shared the same outlook as the popes. 01:11.520 --> 01:15.340 Their offices were usually the result of bribes, rather than competence or 01:15.340 --> 01:15.780 devotion. 01:16.760 --> 01:19.280 In many cases familiar ties played a role. 01:19.700 --> 01:23.480 The sons of popes becoming cardinals, and the sons of cardinals becoming 01:23.480 --> 01:23.920 bishops. 01:24.820 --> 01:28.900 If clever enough, one such church potentate could amass as many offices as 01:28.900 --> 01:33.900 he wanted, serving as bishop of two, three or even more dioceses. 01:34.220 --> 01:38.060 And by service they often meant nothing more than collecting rent from the many 01:38.060 --> 01:39.200 offices that they held. 01:40.740 --> 01:43.780 Actual work was done by the humble parish priest or monk. 01:44.320 --> 01:48.000 Most of these men were of peasant stock, just as poor and illiterate as their 01:48.000 --> 01:48.460 congregation. 01:49.580 --> 01:53.740 Like their superiors, they often kept concubines, fathered children and engaged 01:53.740 --> 01:54.680 in petty corruption. 01:55.740 --> 01:59.720 Mass was often nothing more than the priest reciting verses in broken Latin 01:59.720 --> 02:02.580 that neither he nor his congregation understood. 02:04.380 --> 02:08.740 Much of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century was marked by the 02:08.740 --> 02:12.560 Avignon captivity of the popes, and later the Great Western Schism. 02:13.480 --> 02:17.240 During this time there were popes and there were antipopes, both claiming 02:17.240 --> 02:18.540 sovereignty over the church. 02:19.340 --> 02:23.180 Later during the conciliar movement, popes battled a plethora of religious 02:23.180 --> 02:25.360 councils for supremacy of the church. 02:26.020 --> 02:30.700 By the time the popes won, the credibility and prestige of the church were long gone. 02:32.060 --> 02:36.480 With such turmoil in the Catholic Church, it is no wonder that reformation was a 02:36.480 --> 02:37.700 centuries long desire. 02:38.620 --> 02:42.140 In the late 12th century a reforming heresy arose in Lyon. 02:42.900 --> 02:47.520 The Waldensians advocated for a humbler and poorer church, questioning many dogmas 02:47.520 --> 02:51.840 and religious customs such as the purgatory, saints, pilgrimages and 02:51.840 --> 02:53.020 transubstantiation. 02:53.620 --> 02:57.660 The church mercilessly persecuted the Waldensians, and the creed didn't spread 02:57.660 --> 02:59.320 very far from its place of origin. 03:00.100 --> 03:03.980 By 1517 there are only isolated buckets of worshippers. 03:05.620 --> 03:09.380 Another sect, the Lollards, emerged in late 14th century in England. 03:10.040 --> 03:13.840 The Lollards were followers of John Wycliffe, an Oxford scholar who translated 03:13.840 --> 03:15.080 the Bible into English. 03:15.740 --> 03:19.420 The Catholic Church had been using the Latin Bible since the 4th century, 03:19.760 --> 03:22.080 however few people in England understood Latin. 03:22.720 --> 03:26.900 Wycliffe believed that the prime authority in religious matters should be the Bible. 03:27.580 --> 03:31.380 Based on this, the Lollards condemned the pomp and ceremony as well as the 03:31.380 --> 03:33.300 worldliness and corruption of the church. 03:34.020 --> 03:38.220 Similarly to the Waldensians, they did not believe in transubstantiation or the 03:38.220 --> 03:40.280 benefits of saints and pilgrimages. 03:41.000 --> 03:44.720 Initially some members of the nobility were backing the Lollards to oppose the 03:44.720 --> 03:45.000 king. 03:45.520 --> 03:50.400 However after the Peasants' Revolt of 1381, that was allegedly inspired by 03:50.400 --> 03:54.640 Lollards, they were declared heretics and had been persecuted ever since. 03:55.360 --> 03:59.740 Lollardry also didn't spread very far, neither did it enjoy a large following. 04:01.160 --> 04:05.000 The first reforming heresy to succeed was that of the Hussites. 04:05.760 --> 04:10.080 Jan Hus, director of the University of Prague started preaching in a defense of 04:10.080 --> 04:11.000 Wycliffe's ideas. 04:12.240 --> 04:16.900 In 1412 he openly defied the Pope over the selling of indulgences. 04:18.160 --> 04:23.520 In 1414 Hus was lured to the Council of Constance to dispute his ideas with the 04:23.520 --> 04:24.620 church's representatives. 04:25.800 --> 04:30.420 In spite of having received safe conduct, he was tried as a heretic and burned at 04:30.420 --> 04:30.960 the stake. 04:32.200 --> 04:36.020 His followers quickly organized themselves and vowed to defy the Pope. 04:36.780 --> 04:40.260 When the King of Bohemia died and Sigismund of Luxembourg, the king's 04:40.260 --> 04:44.220 brother claimed the throne, the Czech nobility turned against him and adopted 04:44.220 --> 04:45.080 Hussite beliefs. 04:46.160 --> 04:49.780 At the urging of the Pope, Europe's monarchs launched five crusades against 04:49.780 --> 04:51.700 the Hussites, all unsuccessful. 04:53.020 --> 04:56.420 Fighting lasted from 1419 to 1434. 04:57.260 --> 05:01.340 With the compacts of Basel, Ultharquists, the moderate majority of the Hussites, 05:01.560 --> 05:05.720 reached compromise with the Catholic Church, allowing for a moderately reformed 05:05.720 --> 05:07.040 Czech National Church. 05:07.720 --> 05:11.540 Taborites, the more radical arm of the Hussites, lost all power, and their 05:11.540 --> 05:13.000 members had to go into hiding. 05:14.300 --> 05:18.220 Renaissance and humanism were the intellectual driving force behind these 05:18.220 --> 05:19.340 reformist movements. 05:20.020 --> 05:23.680 Humanists believe in studying and attempting to emulate the classics of the 05:23.680 --> 05:24.440 ancient world. 05:25.160 --> 05:28.800 While Italian humanists mostly concerned themselves with worldly matters, 05:29.240 --> 05:33.220 their northern counterparts focused their attention on the most popular classic of 05:33.220 --> 05:34.420 the day, the Bible. 05:35.480 --> 05:39.160 Humanists are captivated by the apostolic church of the early Christians, 05:39.620 --> 05:44.340 one of modesty and piety, in stark contrast with the corruption of the 16th 05:44.340 --> 05:45.200 century church. 05:45.960 --> 05:50.960 Humanists intend to reform the church, not by heresy, but rather by education and 05:50.960 --> 05:51.920 careful reform. 05:52.980 --> 05:58.240 To this end, in 1516 the leading northern humanist Erasmus of Rotterdam translates 05:58.240 --> 06:00.920 the New Testament from its original Greek into Latin. 06:01.740 --> 06:06.180 At first the Bible had been translated into Vulgate Latin in the 4th century. 06:06.680 --> 06:11.220 This was copied by hand by generations of monks, many passages being added, 06:11.500 --> 06:12.480 others being omitted. 06:13.000 --> 06:17.920 Now with Erasmus' translation there finally is a standard Bible, and this time 06:17.920 --> 06:22.220 instead of being laboriously copied by monks, it is disseminated all throughout 06:22.220 --> 06:23.600 Europe in printed form. 06:24.560 --> 06:28.580 In conjunction with humanism, capitalism is taking off in northern Europe. 06:29.260 --> 06:33.120 Urbanization is the order of the day, and with urbanization and printing, 06:33.120 --> 06:38.020 comes increased literacy not only for the middle classes, but also for some members 06:38.020 --> 06:40.920 of the urban proletariat and even the peasantry. 06:41.640 --> 06:43.700 Universities spring up left and right. 06:44.240 --> 06:48.480 From Paris to Krakow, humanists take up increasingly important roles at these 06:48.480 --> 06:52.880 universities, educating new generations of humanists and reformers. 06:54.200 --> 06:58.500 In spite of the continuous wars and the church's corruption, or perhaps because of 06:58.500 --> 07:02.220 it, popular versions of piety are more fashionable than ever. 07:03.060 --> 07:08.020 Saints and pilgrimages, popular devotions to Mary and to the 14 stages of the cross 07:08.020 --> 07:08.840 are the rage. 07:10.040 --> 07:14.820 Lay people form religious fraternities all across Europe, and particularly in the low 07:14.820 --> 07:15.360 countries. 07:15.980 --> 07:19.280 They live piously like monks, without being ordained themselves. 07:19.880 --> 07:24.000 They preach and teach, doing the church's job, but without being in the church. 07:24.920 --> 07:28.980 One could almost think that the Catholic Church and its services are not needed 07:28.980 --> 07:29.500 anymore. 07:31.160 --> 07:34.540 This is the world Luther was born into in 1483. 07:35.860 --> 07:40.080 Luther turns out to be a bright young man, therefore his middle class parents sent 07:40.080 --> 07:43.440 him to law school, where Luther receives a humanist education. 07:44.560 --> 07:49.100 One fine day while walking home from university, Luther is almost struck by 07:49.100 --> 07:49.480 lightning. 07:50.180 --> 07:54.500 He interprets this as a message from God, and to the consternation of his father 07:54.500 --> 07:56.040 decides to become a monk. 07:57.140 --> 08:01.460 In his novice year he is wracked by doubts about his salvation, and becomes 08:01.460 --> 08:02.540 profoundly depressed. 08:04.120 --> 08:06.200 Getting to heaven is not a simple thing. 08:06.920 --> 08:10.560 According to the Catholic Church, first of all one needs to have faith in 08:10.560 --> 08:13.080 God, second he has to do good works. 08:13.800 --> 08:17.640 Doing good works means doing good deeds, living like a pious Christian, 08:17.980 --> 08:19.420 praying and being charitable. 08:20.500 --> 08:24.020 Luther does good works to the extreme and gets even more depressed. 08:24.880 --> 08:29.740 Johan von Staupitz, his superior convinces him that salvation comes from faith alone. 08:30.300 --> 08:35.020 At this realization, Luther snaps out of his depression and becomes well adjusted 08:35.020 --> 08:36.040 to monkish life. 08:37.060 --> 08:41.040 Later he becomes a lecturer at the newly founded University of Wittenberg, 08:41.180 --> 08:43.420 run by his order the Augustines. 08:44.220 --> 08:47.840 Here he develops his theory of predestination that is based on the 08:47.840 --> 08:48.740 letters of Paul. 08:49.440 --> 08:53.520 According to Paul, in Luther's interpretation, salvation can only be 08:53.520 --> 08:57.720 achieved by faith, human effort and free will being completely excluded. 08:58.580 --> 09:02.560 However if one is saved, one will automatically be inclined to do good 09:02.560 --> 09:03.000 works. 09:03.660 --> 09:07.500 Therefore good works are the result of salvation, not the cause. 09:08.140 --> 09:12.000 Luther begins to teach his theory at Wittenberg, however he fails to attract 09:12.000 --> 09:15.920 significant attention, since such theories are quite common nowadays. 09:17.280 --> 09:21.940 The great sale of indulgences of 1517 will change everything. 09:22.660 --> 09:25.760 Indulgences are a key component in the absolution of sin. 09:26.240 --> 09:30.080 According to the Catholic Church, to be absolved from sin, one has to 09:30.080 --> 09:31.260 complete three steps. 09:31.800 --> 09:33.720 First, one has to confess his sin. 09:34.040 --> 09:35.620 Second, he has to be sorry. 09:36.040 --> 09:37.920 And third, he has to do penance. 09:38.500 --> 09:42.480 Completing all the steps is very important, because otherwise one would end 09:42.480 --> 09:45.640 up in purgatory, a place almost as bad as hell. 09:46.760 --> 09:49.340 Doing penance in general means doing good works. 09:49.760 --> 09:53.440 However if your sin is too great, or you're just lazy, there's a shortcut. 09:54.280 --> 09:58.280 Indulgences are special documents dispensed by the Pope, which can be used 09:58.280 --> 09:59.460 to replace good works. 09:59.940 --> 10:02.880 Their power is derived from the Treasure House of Merit. 10:03.280 --> 10:06.880 The Treasure House of Merit is the collection of all the merit of Jesus 10:06.880 --> 10:08.640 Christ and of the early Christians. 10:09.400 --> 10:13.000 The Pope, as the head of the Catholic Church, holds the key to this endless 10:13.000 --> 10:14.020 amount of merit. 10:14.960 --> 10:19.040 Indulgences had been around for centuries, however as the purchasing power of the 10:19.040 --> 10:23.140 population had grown, so grew the scope and power of indulgences. 10:24.880 --> 10:29.460 As it happened, Albrecht of Brandenburg, the Archbishop of Magdeburg, Luther's 10:29.460 --> 10:34.020 superior, had recently obtained another archbishopric, that of the Electorate of 10:34.020 --> 10:34.480 Mainz. 10:34.980 --> 10:39.220 To pay the bribes that are necessary to buy such a position, Albrecht took up 10:39.220 --> 10:40.360 loans from the Fugers. 10:41.480 --> 10:44.120 Now he is penniless and unable to pay his debt. 10:45.220 --> 10:49.660 He asks the Pope for a loan, however Leo proposes something even better. 10:49.660 --> 10:53.060 He will organize a massive sale of indulgences. 10:53.640 --> 10:58.480 He will keep half the profit and use it to rebuild St. Peter's Basilica, and Albrecht 10:58.480 --> 11:00.480 will get the other half to repay his debt. 11:01.360 --> 11:05.840 The best market for this great sale is Germany, and the Pope sends the best 11:05.840 --> 11:07.300 salesman to complete the job. 11:09.280 --> 11:12.700 Johann Tetzel bursts on the indulgence market like a storm. 11:13.420 --> 11:17.560 He claims indulgences sold by him can be used to atone for future sins, 11:17.760 --> 11:19.300 or for the sins of the deceased. 11:20.200 --> 11:24.140 These claims are unheard of, as indulgences are only supposed to be valid 11:24.140 --> 11:28.900 in the here and now for sins already committed, and only for those living, 11:29.100 --> 11:29.980 not for the dead. 11:31.080 --> 11:35.680 However as long as there is a market for them, Tetzel is there to satisfy the 11:35.680 --> 11:36.100 demand. 11:37.820 --> 11:39.520 Luther takes this for what it is. 11:39.920 --> 11:43.580 Not simply a scam, but a grave endangerment of people's souls. 11:44.920 --> 11:49.740 He formulates his grievances in a 95-point thesis, not only denouncing the sale of 11:49.740 --> 11:53.500 indulgences, but also questioning the Pope's right to the Treasure House of 11:53.500 --> 11:53.800 Merit. 11:54.620 --> 12:00.860 On October 31, 1517, Luther sends his disputation to his superior, Albrecht of 12:00.860 --> 12:01.500 Brandenburg. 12:02.240 --> 12:06.260 Albrecht immediately sees the problem with it, and forwards a copy to the Pope. 12:08.040 --> 12:10.140 Leo X is very displeased. 12:10.840 --> 12:14.560 What is to come if Luther questions his right to the Treasure House of Merit? 12:15.320 --> 12:17.100 Papal power will again be eroded. 12:17.940 --> 12:19.900 Leo must prevent this at all costs. 12:21.060 --> 12:22.820 His answer is blunt and unprecedented. 12:23.940 --> 12:27.740 He decrees that the Pope is infallible, and also that the Pope is the highest 12:27.740 --> 12:30.480 authority in the Church, even surpassing the Bible. 12:32.340 --> 12:37.860 As for Luther, in 1518 the Pope dispatches his best theologian to try to convince him 12:37.860 --> 12:40.000 of his errors and determine him to recant. 12:41.460 --> 12:45.920 Luther remains recalcitrant and insists he is right about indulgences. 12:47.360 --> 12:52.920 In 1519 the Pope deploys the hardliner Johann Eck to debate Luther in Leipzig. 12:54.400 --> 12:58.860 Eck is determined to incriminate Luther, so during the three-day public debate he 12:58.860 --> 13:01.260 relentlessly questions him on papal superiority. 13:02.600 --> 13:04.760 By the end he backs Luther into a corner. 13:05.460 --> 13:09.660 Luther makes declarations that may well be interpreted as challenging the power of 13:09.660 --> 13:11.520 the Pope and of the religious councils. 13:12.980 --> 13:16.920 Eck declares Luther to be a heretic and a hussite and runs back to the Pope with 13:16.920 --> 13:17.460 evidence. 13:18.420 --> 13:23.360 The Pope issues an edict calling on Luther to recant his heretical views within 60 13:23.360 --> 13:25.400 days, or else be excommunicated. 13:26.380 --> 13:28.000 Luther will do no such thing. 13:28.580 --> 13:31.260 He takes the papal bull and publicly burns it. 13:32.760 --> 13:37.680 Thus Luther officially becomes a heretic on the 3rd of January 1521. 13:39.480 --> 13:43.280 Luther has nothing to lose now, so he concludes that as long as he is a 13:43.280 --> 13:45.740 heretic, he might as well formulate his heresy. 13:46.520 --> 13:50.140 To this end he writes a series of books outlining his views on religion. 13:51.380 --> 13:55.380 Luther reaffirms his belief that salvation can only be achieved through faith. 13:56.120 --> 13:59.620 In the humanist tradition he denies transubstantiation. 14:01.260 --> 14:04.800 Transubstantiation refers to the miracle of the Mass, when according to the 14:04.800 --> 14:08.340 Catholic Church Christ's body and blood turns into bread and wine. 14:09.740 --> 14:14.420 Luther believes in consubstantiation, meaning Christ's body and blood is present 14:14.420 --> 14:17.180 during the Mass, but it does not turn into bread and wine. 14:18.120 --> 14:22.920 From this Luther deduces that clergy have no divine powers, therefore they should 14:22.920 --> 14:25.320 also not have special status in society. 14:26.440 --> 14:30.620 Instead of a rigid church hierarchy, Luther believes in the priesthood of all 14:30.620 --> 14:31.080 believers. 14:32.300 --> 14:36.580 He insists that everyone should read and interpret the Bible, not just the priests. 14:37.640 --> 14:42.260 Most importantly he states that the Bible, and not the Pope, is the supreme authority 14:42.260 --> 14:42.980 in religion. 14:44.240 --> 14:46.880 By now Luther's works are widely circulated. 14:47.520 --> 14:51.440 With every major town having a printing press, books are usually reprinted. 14:51.880 --> 14:54.860 This allows books and pamphlets to spread like wildfire. 14:55.700 --> 15:00.160 After the Leipzig debate, Luther's ideas begin to garner nationwide fame. 15:00.980 --> 15:04.960 To stop this once and for all, Luther is summoned to the Imperial Diet of 15:04.960 --> 15:10.060 1521 to be held at Worms with the newly crowned Emperor Charles V and all the 15:10.060 --> 15:11.720 princes of the realm in attendance. 15:12.540 --> 15:16.020 To ensure he gets a fair hearing and doesn't end up burned at the stake, 15:16.140 --> 15:18.060 he is given safe conduct by the Emperor. 15:18.940 --> 15:22.980 On his way there, he is cheered and celebrated by large and enthusiastic 15:22.980 --> 15:23.640 crowds. 15:24.460 --> 15:29.300 Luther never intended to start a heresy, however now to his surprise he discovered 15:29.300 --> 15:33.500 he did just that, and was quite successful at it to say the least. 15:34.840 --> 15:37.740 At Worms he is confronted by his arch enemy Eck. 15:38.220 --> 15:40.860 He is ordered to recant all his heretical views. 15:42.000 --> 15:46.500 To everyone's dismay, Luther decides to listen to his conscience and refuses to 15:46.500 --> 15:48.680 disavow anything he had said or written. 15:49.240 --> 15:54.060 In response, the Emperor issues the Edict of Worms, condemning Luther and all those 15:54.060 --> 15:57.160 who hate him or follow him as heretics of the highest order. 15:57.760 --> 15:59.320 Practically a death sentence. 16:00.780 --> 16:05.240 Luther still has two days worth of safe conduct, however after that he is fair 16:05.240 --> 16:05.600 game. 16:06.060 --> 16:10.120 As an infamous outlaw, he may be killed or captured by anyone looking for a rich 16:10.120 --> 16:10.640 reward. 16:11.520 --> 16:16.180 With this premise, Luther sets out for Wittenberg, and a certainty of uncertainty 16:16.180 --> 16:17.460 awaiting him there. 16:18.300 --> 16:23.060 With his days numbered, he can only trust in God, as unpredictable as God's ways 16:23.060 --> 16:23.480 are. 16:30.690 --> 16:31.810 It's 1521. 16:32.690 --> 16:35.110 Luther is traveling home from the Diet of Worms. 16:35.350 --> 16:38.430 He has just been declared an outlaw and a dangerous heretic. 16:38.890 --> 16:40.070 His days are numbered. 16:40.710 --> 16:42.730 Predictably he is set upon by armed men. 16:42.730 --> 16:45.190 He is held at gunpoint and kidnapped. 16:46.430 --> 16:50.250 The twist is that the kidnappers are working for his prince, Frederick III, 16:50.390 --> 16:51.490 Elector of Saxony. 16:52.110 --> 16:56.330 Frederick is far from being a Lutheran, however he will not miss out on such a 16:56.330 --> 16:57.890 good chance to oppose the Emperor. 16:58.530 --> 17:02.210 Like all princes of the realm, he has a deep disdain for the all-powerful 17:02.210 --> 17:02.730 Habsburg. 17:03.430 --> 17:08.370 The Holy Roman Empire is a collection of around 300 de facto independent states and 17:08.370 --> 17:08.930 statelets. 17:09.410 --> 17:14.130 The most important principalities are the electorates of Brandenburg, Saxony and the 17:14.130 --> 17:16.690 Palatinate, as well as Hesse and Bavaria. 17:17.310 --> 17:21.350 There are also extensive ecclesiastical states, particularly in the west, 17:21.810 --> 17:25.790 the most important ones being the electorates of Trier, Mainz and Cologne. 17:26.390 --> 17:29.070 Germany is a priest-ridden and fragmented place. 17:29.610 --> 17:33.590 Since the Emperor is merely a figurehead, all the church lands are governed directly 17:33.590 --> 17:34.210 from Rome. 17:34.570 --> 17:37.710 Therefore all the money collected from Germany flows to Rome. 17:38.410 --> 17:42.150 Frederick would like to see the Emperor even more powerless and the church a lot 17:42.150 --> 17:45.290 poorer, with his wealth and his power thus increased. 17:45.730 --> 17:49.710 If he could become head of the church within his realm, he and not Rome would 17:49.710 --> 17:51.350 dispose of the church's income. 17:51.970 --> 17:56.150 Simply put, Frederick sees Luther as a useful pawn in his dynastic plans. 17:56.750 --> 18:00.990 After whisking him away, he hides Luther at Wartburg Castle, all the while pleading 18:00.990 --> 18:02.650 ignorance about his whereabouts. 18:04.230 --> 18:06.370 Luther keeps busy while at Wartburg. 18:06.850 --> 18:10.790 He translates the New Testament into German, so that every man can read and 18:10.790 --> 18:11.730 interpret the Bible. 18:12.570 --> 18:16.630 He also establishes that confession should be a private affair without a priest, 18:16.750 --> 18:21.170 and that vows of celibacy and those made to religious orders are invalid and may be 18:21.170 --> 18:21.990 broken at will. 18:22.610 --> 18:26.530 Hearing this, monks and nuns escape their monasteries and nunneries, and become 18:26.530 --> 18:28.090 newcomers to Lutheranism. 18:29.010 --> 18:32.730 While Luther is away, his colleague, Andreas Karlstadt, implements his 18:32.730 --> 18:34.370 reforming ideas in Wittenberg. 18:36.170 --> 18:40.030 After Christmas, a group of three strange men appears in Wittenberg. 18:41.070 --> 18:45.110 The Zwickau prophets have the curious custom of only baptizing adults. 18:45.790 --> 18:49.530 This custom is quite unnerving, since all Christendom agrees that one 18:49.530 --> 18:53.270 should be baptized shortly after birth, never to be rebaptized again. 18:54.250 --> 18:58.430 Additionally, these Anabaptists believe that revelation of the Holy Spirit is the 18:58.430 --> 19:00.410 supreme authority, not the Bible. 19:01.310 --> 19:05.830 They are also millenarians, believing the end times are near, when only those chosen 19:05.830 --> 19:07.390 by Christ will get resurrected. 19:08.090 --> 19:12.130 These chosen ones then will live for a thousand years in the Kingdom of God. 19:12.990 --> 19:16.990 When Luther hears of this, he rushes back to Wittenberg and puts an end to the 19:16.990 --> 19:17.450 nonsense. 19:18.370 --> 19:22.430 He is horrified by recent developments, as he intended for a slow and controlled 19:22.430 --> 19:26.370 evolution, instead of a fast and out of control revolution. 19:28.110 --> 19:31.850 To Luther's surprise, he soon discovers people do have free will. 19:32.950 --> 19:37.130 Franz von Sickingen, the most colorful character in Germany, is one of many who 19:37.130 --> 19:40.190 intend to use Luther's ideas to further their own interests. 19:40.910 --> 19:45.170 As a petty prince, Sickingen had to look out for himself, gaining fame in the 19:45.170 --> 19:48.970 emperor's service, as well as infamy when he invaded most of his neighbors. 19:50.290 --> 19:52.170 He is typical of the knightly class. 19:52.870 --> 19:55.210 The knightly class are a remnant of feudalism. 19:55.870 --> 19:59.850 They are quickly losing their power to the more adaptive city-dwelling middle class. 20:00.270 --> 20:03.950 They also feel oppressed by the princes who are encroaching on their territory, 20:04.350 --> 20:08.170 and they are jealous of the vast amounts of wealth and land the church controls. 20:09.290 --> 20:13.950 Similarly to Frederick, Sickingen intends to justify his politics with Lutheranism. 20:14.510 --> 20:19.510 In 1522 he gathers a large army of knights and claims to act in the emperor's name, 20:19.630 --> 20:21.450 while Charles V is away in Spain. 20:22.230 --> 20:24.250 The knights formulate several demands. 20:25.110 --> 20:28.390 They want the abolition of princely power and the creation of a centralized 20:28.390 --> 20:31.630 monarchy, where all men of noble birth would be equal. 20:32.410 --> 20:36.930 More importantly, they want to secularize church property using Lutheran arguments. 20:37.930 --> 20:41.330 To add weight to their word, the knights attack the archbishopric of Trier. 20:42.050 --> 20:46.970 The siege of Trier ends 5 days later, when Sickingen runs out of gunpowder. 20:48.070 --> 20:52.430 Soon Philip of Hesse and Elector Palatine come to the archbishop's aid and easily 20:52.430 --> 20:53.790 crush the rebellious knights. 20:54.530 --> 20:58.390 Sickingen dies fighting, and the knights are a coherent force no more. 20:59.770 --> 21:03.290 Luther strongly disapproves of the knights' interpretation of his doctrine. 21:03.930 --> 21:06.490 However the knights' revolt was just the beginning. 21:08.010 --> 21:10.390 Peasants are the largest class within society. 21:11.310 --> 21:15.670 They enjoy increasing wealth and mobility, with serfdom being almost abolished. 21:16.410 --> 21:20.950 As princes are centralizing their rule, these meager gains of the peasantry are in 21:20.950 --> 21:21.690 danger again. 21:22.730 --> 21:25.290 The proletariat of the cities have similar qualms. 21:25.790 --> 21:29.710 They feel they are held back by the rigid system of guilds implemented by the 21:29.710 --> 21:31.010 oligarchy of the cities. 21:32.130 --> 21:36.850 In the autumn of 1524, in the south of Germany, a group of peasants are ordered 21:36.850 --> 21:38.810 by their lord to collect snail shells. 21:39.490 --> 21:43.110 The peasants refuse and tell their lord that those days are over. 21:43.630 --> 21:46.050 The rebellion quickly spreads throughout Swabia. 21:46.730 --> 21:50.130 Rebellious peasants and urban poor take over Memmingen, where their 21:50.130 --> 21:52.590 representatives meet to formulate their grievances. 21:53.610 --> 21:58.270 In the 12 articles, the peasants demand the abolition of serfdom, the abolition of 21:58.270 --> 21:59.970 the church city and the death tax. 22:00.430 --> 22:05.490 An end to the enclosure of common land, the right to hunt and fish, lower rents 22:05.490 --> 22:08.370 and the right of communities to elect church officials. 22:09.670 --> 22:13.530 To underline their points, the peasants begin to rob, murder and rape, 22:13.930 --> 22:18.410 the rebellion extending all the way up north into Thuringia, and south into the 22:18.410 --> 22:20.350 Swiss lands and Tyrol by next year. 22:21.230 --> 22:24.730 The ransacking of castles and monasteries by mobs is nothing new. 22:25.250 --> 22:27.630 This time however, the peasants have an ideology. 22:28.250 --> 22:30.450 They are doing exactly what Luther told them. 22:30.910 --> 22:34.030 They read the Bible and interpreted it to the best of their knowledge. 22:34.710 --> 22:39.330 In their reading, the Bible says the meek will inherit the earth, consequently taxes 22:39.330 --> 22:41.410 and social classes should be abolished. 22:42.470 --> 22:46.810 Printing is extensively used by the rebels, circulating tens of thousands of 22:46.810 --> 22:49.110 pamphlets filled with inflammatory propaganda. 22:49.950 --> 22:54.430 Their spiritual leader is Thomas Müntzer, a radical reformer associated with the 22:54.430 --> 22:55.350 Zwickau prophets. 22:56.150 --> 22:57.870 Müntzer is also a millenarian. 22:58.590 --> 23:02.750 He believes the apocalypse is near, and he will lead the righteous to victory. 23:04.190 --> 23:08.230 Luther is outraged that his ideas of reforming the church are being used as 23:08.230 --> 23:10.330 arguments for a rebellion and mob rule. 23:10.910 --> 23:15.230 He strongly condemns the rebels in several pamphlets calling on the princes to put 23:15.230 --> 23:16.630 them down like rabid dogs. 23:17.870 --> 23:23.110 Initially the princes were caught off guard, however by early 1525 they begin to 23:23.110 --> 23:24.290 mobilize their forces. 23:25.110 --> 23:28.370 Since the emperor is in Spain and his armies are on campaign in Italy, 23:28.650 --> 23:32.530 it is left to the Swabian League, a coalition of southern German states to 23:32.530 --> 23:33.450 put down the rebellion. 23:34.630 --> 23:39.010 In April League armies defeat a large peasant army at Leipheim near Augsburg. 23:40.090 --> 23:43.150 In May they crush a peasant army at Frankenhausen. 23:43.850 --> 23:46.230 Müntzer is captured, tortured and executed. 23:47.590 --> 23:51.710 Simultaneously other League armies annihilate the peasant army at Böblingen. 23:52.590 --> 23:55.910 Fighting continues for a while, but the resistance of the peasants is 23:55.910 --> 23:56.750 already broken. 23:57.450 --> 24:01.310 They never managed to unite their forces, they had been defeated in every battle, 24:01.630 --> 24:04.530 and the cities closed their gates when they saw the tide turn. 24:05.230 --> 24:08.870 Repression is brutal, with at least 100.000 peasants killed. 24:09.630 --> 24:13.670 Social mobility is finished, and the princes have confirmed that they are the 24:13.670 --> 24:15.030 true rulers in their land. 24:16.770 --> 24:21.310 By this time several princely states and imperial cities had adopted Lutheranism. 24:22.430 --> 24:26.590 Luther as a consequence of the peasants' war decided that reforming the Church from 24:26.590 --> 24:28.230 the bottom up is undesirable. 24:29.030 --> 24:32.170 Instead of preaching to the masses, he starts to preach to princes. 24:33.130 --> 24:37.230 Two of his most important converts are Philip of Hesse and John of Saxony. 24:37.850 --> 24:42.270 They are the champions of Lutheranism at the Diet of Speyer in 1526. 24:43.170 --> 24:46.730 The Emperor is represented by his brother, the Archduke Ferdinand. 24:47.510 --> 24:50.110 Ferdinand comes to the table with a very bad hand. 24:50.810 --> 24:54.830 The Turks have just defeated the Kingdom of Hungary at Mohacs, killing the young 24:54.830 --> 24:55.750 King Louis II. 24:56.710 --> 25:01.210 This vacated both the thrones of the Crown of Bohemia and Hungary, with Ferdinand 25:01.210 --> 25:02.210 having the best claim. 25:02.990 --> 25:07.610 Bohemia is added to the empire without a problem, however in Hungary Charles and 25:07.610 --> 25:11.110 Ferdinand have to contend with the anti-Habsburg faction on one part, 25:11.490 --> 25:12.850 and the Ottomans on the other. 25:13.630 --> 25:17.310 In Italy, imperial forces are still engaged against France, Venice, 25:17.450 --> 25:20.410 Florence and the Pope in the War of the League of Cognac. 25:21.050 --> 25:24.850 Thus Ferdinand has to make concessions to the Lutherans in order to obtain their 25:24.850 --> 25:25.990 help and cooperation. 25:26.790 --> 25:30.810 The Edict of Worms is temporarily suspended, and it is left up to the 25:30.810 --> 25:33.030 princes to the religion of their provinces. 25:33.650 --> 25:37.850 Therefore princes become the effective heads of their churches, establishing the 25:37.850 --> 25:42.730 cuius regio eius religio principle, meaning he who rules the land chooses the 25:42.730 --> 25:43.170 religion. 25:44.570 --> 25:48.690 While Lutherans are being burned at the stake in Habsburg lands, more and more 25:48.690 --> 25:50.250 German states become Lutheran. 25:51.010 --> 25:56.390 Prussia, Ansbach, Brunswick, Hesse, Saxony, Silesia, the cities of Nuremberg, 25:56.490 --> 26:00.770 Strasbourg, Augsburg, Frankfurt, Lübeck, Bremen and Hamburg had become 26:00.770 --> 26:01.330 Lutheran. 26:02.150 --> 26:06.630 Luther doesn't take direct part in the process of reformation, as he believes the 26:06.630 --> 26:09.730 worldly power of the prince or the city oligarchs should decide. 26:10.190 --> 26:12.650 Thus church and state are no longer separate. 26:13.870 --> 26:17.750 Printers, pamphleteers and the young graduates of the University of Wittenberg 26:17.750 --> 26:20.030 provide the foot soldiers for the reformation. 26:20.650 --> 26:25.190 Luther continues his writing and serves as advisor for several Protestant princes. 26:27.250 --> 26:29.490 Lutheranism also spreads beyond Germany. 26:30.190 --> 26:34.270 In 1527 Gustav Vasa initiates the Swedish Reformation. 26:35.130 --> 26:37.610 Lutheranism had already developed roots in Sweden. 26:38.190 --> 26:43.210 The New Testament had been translated to Swedish in 1526, and Olaus Petri, 26:43.490 --> 26:46.510 a Wittenberg-educated theologian is advising the king. 26:47.190 --> 26:51.370 Sweden had just gained independence from the Kalmar Union, a personal union of 26:51.370 --> 26:53.930 Scandinavian countries headed by the Danish king. 26:54.350 --> 26:58.470 During the Kalmar Union, power shifted from the monarch to the nobility and the 26:58.470 --> 26:58.810 clergy. 26:58.810 --> 27:04.670 Gustav I, a shrewd politician clearly sees Lutheranism's advantages in building a 27:04.670 --> 27:06.310 strong centralized monarchy. 27:06.950 --> 27:11.690 Therefore in 1527 at the Assembly of the Estates he proposes to make himself the 27:11.690 --> 27:16.350 head of the church, to confiscate all clerical assets, to subject clergy to 27:16.350 --> 27:20.950 secular law, and to declare the Bible the supreme authority in matters of religion. 27:21.810 --> 27:25.810 The Estates approves his proposal, and Lutheranism becomes the official state 27:25.810 --> 27:29.650 religion of Sweden, and by default of Finland, then in personal union with 27:29.650 --> 27:30.030 Sweden. 27:31.950 --> 27:33.690 Lutheranism had also come to Denmark. 27:34.770 --> 27:38.610 It was already adopted in the south in the lands ruled by the crown prince Christian, 27:38.770 --> 27:40.650 and tolerated in the rest of the country. 27:41.270 --> 27:46.550 When King Frederick I dies in 1533, the nobility and the clergy side with 27:46.550 --> 27:47.730 Christian's younger brother. 27:48.250 --> 27:52.390 A civil war ensues, however when the rebels ask Lübeck for help, popular 27:52.390 --> 27:53.830 opinion turns against them. 27:54.690 --> 28:00.150 Christian III is victorious, and in 1536 Lutheranism becomes the state religion of 28:00.150 --> 28:00.490 Denmark. 28:01.450 --> 28:06.250 Like in Sweden, the king uses religion to strengthen himself, confiscating clerical 28:06.250 --> 28:09.150 estates and arresting bishops and nobles who opposed him. 28:10.050 --> 28:14.510 Later Lutheranism would be spread to the king's other domains, Norway, Iceland and 28:14.510 --> 28:15.070 Greenland. 28:17.130 --> 28:19.650 Simultaneously, Lutheranism spreads to France. 28:20.630 --> 28:24.590 Unlike lesser kings, France's monarch already has the right to name bishops and 28:24.590 --> 28:25.410 tax the church. 28:26.190 --> 28:30.430 Therefore Francis I has no particular motivation to reform the church, 28:30.790 --> 28:34.510 however being an avid humanist, he has a natural curiosity and tolerance 28:34.510 --> 28:35.470 to new ideas. 28:36.550 --> 28:41.810 The downfall of this nascent Protestantism comes in 1534, when radicals nail an 28:41.810 --> 28:44.830 anti-Catholic pamphlet to the door of the king's bedchamber. 28:45.430 --> 28:49.690 Francis sees this as a personal affront, and starts to persecute Protestants. 28:50.490 --> 28:54.530 Many flee, others go underground, waiting for more favorable conditions. 28:56.650 --> 28:58.990 Across the channel the exact opposite happens. 28:59.970 --> 29:04.070 King Henry VIII is a staunch conservative who hates Luther, but he has a major 29:04.070 --> 29:04.550 problem. 29:05.270 --> 29:09.550 His wife Catherine of Aragon hasn't given him a male heir, and she is already over 29:09.550 --> 29:10.030 40. 29:10.810 --> 29:14.190 Therefore in 1527 he requests a divorce from the pope. 29:15.430 --> 29:19.990 Catherine however is Charles V's aunt, and after the sack of Rome, Pope Clement 29:19.990 --> 29:21.750 VII is in the emperor's pocket. 29:23.330 --> 29:27.650 Henry's request is refused, so the king decides to follow the Protestant example 29:27.650 --> 29:28.830 and break from Rome. 29:29.510 --> 29:34.330 He achieves this in 1534 and subsequently starts to confiscate church property. 29:35.610 --> 29:39.330 In 1536 a pro-Catholic rebellion breaks out in the north. 29:40.050 --> 29:44.410 The Pilgrimage of Grace convinces Henry that further religious reform is not 29:44.410 --> 29:44.830 needed. 29:45.850 --> 29:49.510 Since all he wanted was to become the head of the church, he considers the English 29:49.510 --> 29:50.550 Reformation done. 29:52.750 --> 29:57.250 Meanwhile Germany prepares for the Imperial Diet of 1529 to be held at 29:57.250 --> 29:57.670 Speyer. 29:58.670 --> 30:01.390 Ferdinand has a much stronger hand than 3 years before. 30:02.510 --> 30:07.150 Imperial armies were once again victorious in Italy, and Francis I seems finally 30:07.150 --> 30:08.210 ready to make peace. 30:09.390 --> 30:13.490 Ferdinand declares that all heretical activities must be suspended until a 30:13.490 --> 30:17.410 proper church council is convened, and all property and offices of the 30:17.410 --> 30:18.950 Catholic Church should be restored. 30:19.370 --> 30:23.910 This is unacceptable to the Lutherans, therefore they leave the Diet in protest. 30:24.670 --> 30:26.910 This is where the name Protestant comes from. 30:28.090 --> 30:30.030 A few months later fortunes turn. 30:31.110 --> 30:33.930 The Ottomans have attacked again and are besieging Vienna. 30:34.930 --> 30:39.390 Charles V decides to convene another Diet the next year, where he would attend in 30:39.390 --> 30:39.770 person. 30:40.510 --> 30:44.430 His plan is to hammer out some sort of a compromise so that the resources of the 30:44.430 --> 30:48.410 Holy Roman Empire could be used to fight the Turk instead of being wasted on 30:48.410 --> 30:49.470 internal squabbles. 30:50.410 --> 30:53.310 The Protestants also come with compromise in mind. 30:54.370 --> 30:57.910 Philip Melanchthon, Luther's colleague drafts the Augsburg Confessions, 30:58.370 --> 31:02.130 a document detailing what Lutheran convictions are and defending them based 31:02.130 --> 31:02.730 on the Bible. 31:03.650 --> 31:07.650 Even though the Augsburg Confession was intended to be a rather conciliatory 31:07.650 --> 31:10.130 document, Charles still judges it excessive. 31:11.070 --> 31:14.490 Nevertheless he proposes for the Catholic princes to write a refutation. 31:15.510 --> 31:19.630 Six weeks later the refutation is published and Charles realizes that 31:19.630 --> 31:22.510 compromise between Catholics and Protestants is impossible. 31:23.450 --> 31:25.510 The Augsburg Diet ends in a stalemate. 31:26.110 --> 31:30.070 Charles is unable to take action against the Protestants as France allies with the 31:30.070 --> 31:34.070 Ottomans and attacks against the Empire continue from the East, the West and the 31:34.070 --> 31:34.650 Mediterranean. 31:36.270 --> 31:40.890 In 1532 as the Ottomans approach Vienna once again, Ferdinand is forced to grant 31:40.890 --> 31:43.530 religious peace to the Lutherans in return for their help. 31:45.050 --> 31:48.030 Nevertheless the Lutheran princes see the writing on the wall. 31:48.770 --> 31:50.830 They are safe for now, but what about later? 31:51.690 --> 31:54.950 To guard themselves against Catholic aggression, the Protestants form the 31:54.950 --> 31:56.930 Schmalkadik League in 1531. 31:57.650 --> 32:01.570 With the leadership of Philip of Hesse and Frederick of Saxony, the League grows 32:01.570 --> 32:04.230 powerful, even concluding an alliance with Denmark. 32:05.270 --> 32:08.210 Lutheranism now has a sure footing in a Holy Roman Empire. 32:08.690 --> 32:13.190 However events elsewhere will overtake Lutheranism in scope and determination. 32:17.960 --> 32:19.160 It's 1519. 32:20.220 --> 32:23.080 Huldrych Zwingli starts his job as a priest in Zürich. 32:23.760 --> 32:28.040 Zürich is already leaning towards church reform, so Zwingli is the perfect man for 32:28.040 --> 32:28.480 the job. 32:29.300 --> 32:33.140 Zwingli was born in the canton of St. Gallen and is the same age as Luther. 32:33.800 --> 32:37.680 Like Luther he was educated at a humanist university in Basel. 32:38.340 --> 32:40.380 In 1506 he became a priest. 32:41.140 --> 32:45.700 In 1513 he joined the Swiss army and participated in the Battle of Novara. 32:46.780 --> 32:50.520 Returning home he started reading humanists, particularly Erasmus. 32:51.260 --> 32:55.100 By the time he assumes his position in Zürich, he is already aware of Luther's 32:55.100 --> 32:55.480 teachings. 32:56.380 --> 33:00.280 His doctrine will be a mixture of Lutheranism and Erasmian humanism. 33:00.900 --> 33:05.260 Like Erasmus, Zwingli believes that the ideal world would be one resembling the 33:05.260 --> 33:08.660 apostolic church of the early Christians as portrayed in the Bible. 33:08.980 --> 33:12.260 A world based on simplicity and piety, and nothing else. 33:13.260 --> 33:15.920 But unlike Luther, Zwingli is a practical man. 33:16.520 --> 33:20.580 He believes there should be absolutely no separation between church and state. 33:21.400 --> 33:24.260 Zwingli is primarily interested in civic reform. 33:24.780 --> 33:28.820 He believes religious and secular authorities should work hand in hand and 33:28.820 --> 33:32.700 on equal footing to conduct civic reforms that would be informed by the Bible. 33:34.120 --> 33:38.980 Zwingli's first open conflict with the church comes in 1522 when he organizes a 33:38.980 --> 33:40.200 barbecue during Lent. 33:40.760 --> 33:44.840 He argues that the concept of Lent is not in the Bible, therefore it's irrelevant. 33:46.080 --> 33:50.280 Later Zwingli and a few other priests cause controversy again when they marry 33:50.280 --> 33:52.480 their girlfriends in a very public ceremony. 33:53.340 --> 33:57.500 Zwingli again argues that priestly celibacy is not in the Bible, therefore 33:57.500 --> 33:58.320 it's unnecessary. 33:59.620 --> 34:04.340 Wanting to resolve the conflict, in 1523 the city authorities call a debate 34:04.340 --> 34:06.520 between Zwingli and Catholic representatives. 34:07.660 --> 34:12.220 Zwingli wins the debate, and henceforth he will decide the future of Zürich's church 34:12.220 --> 34:13.400 and the city's politics. 34:14.360 --> 34:16.660 He begins with the abolishing of the mass. 34:17.520 --> 34:21.040 Unlike Luther, he doesn't believe in either transubstantiation or 34:21.040 --> 34:25.720 consubstantiation, claiming that the body and blood of Christ is not present in any 34:25.720 --> 34:26.900 form in bread and wine. 34:27.600 --> 34:31.720 Henceforth communion will only be had four times a year, and church service will 34:31.720 --> 34:33.060 focus solely on preaching. 34:34.040 --> 34:38.060 He also orders the removal of statues, paintings and stained glass windows, 34:38.320 --> 34:42.160 since these weren't in the Bible either, therefore according to Zwingli they 34:42.160 --> 34:43.440 constitute idolatry. 34:44.420 --> 34:48.480 Church property is ceased, and Zwingli opens a school to train missionaries and 34:48.480 --> 34:49.580 manufacture pamphlets. 34:50.480 --> 34:54.480 He exports his ideas far and wide, and soon the more urbanized northern 34:54.480 --> 34:57.220 cantons join Zürich in adopting Zwinglianism. 34:58.540 --> 35:02.500 This is too much for the more rural and more conservative cantons in the south. 35:03.140 --> 35:07.720 To the urging of Johann Eck, Luther's old nemesis, five Catholic cantons form an 35:07.720 --> 35:10.360 alliance to protect themselves from Zwingli's reformation. 35:11.040 --> 35:15.020 As a consequence, Zwingli and his followers become alarmed, and form an even 35:15.020 --> 35:18.180 larger Protestant alliance to protect themselves from Catholics. 35:18.820 --> 35:22.360 In response the Catholic concludes an alliance with Ferdinand. 35:23.280 --> 35:26.100 Zwinglians see this alliance as a declaration of war. 35:26.960 --> 35:30.960 Both sides mobilize, however war is averted when saner minds prevail. 35:32.140 --> 35:35.940 To strengthen his alliance, Zwingli appeals to the Lutheran princes of Germany 35:35.940 --> 35:36.540 for help. 35:37.340 --> 35:42.140 Filippo Fesse is eager to form an alliance with the Swiss, therefore in 1529 he 35:42.140 --> 35:44.540 organizes a meeting between Luther and Zwingli. 35:45.240 --> 35:48.960 Zwingli had been conversing with Luther for a while, however the two men don't 35:48.960 --> 35:50.360 think very highly of each other. 35:51.240 --> 35:54.740 Luther brings a list of 15 principles Zwingli must agree to. 35:55.260 --> 35:58.940 Zwingli agrees to 14 points, however he disputes the last point, 35:59.140 --> 36:00.220 consubstantiation. 36:01.020 --> 36:04.840 Luther believes that the spirit of Jesus Christ is present in bread and wine, 36:04.940 --> 36:06.680 in the form of consubstantiation. 36:07.180 --> 36:08.960 Zwingli insists this is nonsense. 36:10.180 --> 36:14.260 The negotiations break down on this one issue, and the Zwinglians are left to face 36:14.260 --> 36:15.060 the Catholics alone. 36:16.300 --> 36:20.240 Zwingli tries to plead his case to France and then to the Emperor at the Diet of 36:20.240 --> 36:22.400 Augsburg, but nobody gives him much thought. 36:23.140 --> 36:26.860 He becomes even more radicalized and urges his allies to attack the Catholics. 36:27.940 --> 36:32.040 Eventually a blockade is imposed against the Catholic cantons, however all this 36:32.040 --> 36:33.640 does is anger them even more. 36:34.720 --> 36:37.560 In 1531 the Catholics decide to attack. 36:38.380 --> 36:42.220 This catches the Protestants by surprise, and they fail to mobilize effectively. 36:42.980 --> 36:47.360 Zurich's forces are outnumbered 3 to 1, however Zwingli is undeterred. 36:47.940 --> 36:50.380 He dons his armor and fights in the front ranks. 36:51.180 --> 36:53.820 As his army is routed, he himself falls. 36:54.960 --> 36:59.160 Protestants are left without a leader, however Protestantism is strong enough to 36:59.160 --> 36:59.620 survive. 37:00.280 --> 37:03.840 Peace is concluded with the Catholics, and the north of Switzerland becomes a 37:03.840 --> 37:05.340 bastion of Protestantism. 37:06.380 --> 37:10.000 But Zwinglians weren't the only Protestants in the Swiss Confederacy. 37:10.860 --> 37:13.940 With Zwingli's rise there came the Anabaptists of Zurich. 37:14.860 --> 37:18.620 Like their German counterparts, these Anabaptists believe in adult baptism 37:18.620 --> 37:20.240 and reject infant baptism. 37:20.900 --> 37:24.960 They are even more radical in their desire to return to the apostolic Church. 37:25.880 --> 37:29.120 Unlike Zwingli, they outright reject the state, seeing it as evil. 37:29.920 --> 37:33.960 They refuse to pay taxes, refuse to serve in the army, they don't have priests, 37:34.100 --> 37:36.560 and they isolate themselves from the rest of the community. 37:37.820 --> 37:40.800 Understandably Zwingli doesn't take kindly to the Anabaptists. 37:41.380 --> 37:46.540 In 1526 they are given an ultimatum, either stop adult baptism or die. 37:47.300 --> 37:50.740 After Zwingli shows them he means business, by drowning a few heretics, 37:50.880 --> 37:52.360 the Anabaptists flee Zurich. 37:53.100 --> 37:57.040 Due to their unconventional beliefs, both Catholics and Protestants persecute 37:57.040 --> 37:58.140 them wherever they go. 37:59.360 --> 38:03.560 A group winds up in Moravia under the leadership of Jakob Hutter, who advocates 38:03.560 --> 38:06.620 communal ownership of goods, a primitive form of communism. 38:07.420 --> 38:11.700 Hutter is eventually burned as a heretic, however his followers will become the 38:11.700 --> 38:15.040 ancestors of the Hutterites, eventually ending up in the New World. 38:16.340 --> 38:18.420 Another group seeks refuge in the Netherlands. 38:19.500 --> 38:22.580 Their leader is Melchior Hoffmann, a visionary millenarian. 38:23.200 --> 38:27.160 He believes the second coming of Christ is near, and it will happen in Strasbourg. 38:28.120 --> 38:31.000 Hoffmann goes to Strasbourg, where he is promptly arrested. 38:32.400 --> 38:35.580 One of his lieutenants, Jan Matthys becomes the man in charge. 38:36.340 --> 38:37.840 Matthys also has a vision. 38:38.700 --> 38:41.220 He claims the second coming will happen in Münster. 38:42.120 --> 38:46.180 Therefore in 1534 Matthys and his followers go there, and through an 38:46.180 --> 38:47.940 audacious coup take over the city. 38:48.760 --> 38:52.800 Adult baptism is immediately introduced, and those who refuse are driven out. 38:53.780 --> 38:57.260 Münster's expelled bishop soon gathers reinforcements from the princes, 38:57.500 --> 38:59.660 who are anxious to avoid another peasant's war. 39:00.520 --> 39:04.880 As the bishop lays siege to the city, Matthys introduces communism and later 39:04.880 --> 39:05.480 polygamy. 39:06.140 --> 39:09.780 After a year Münster succumbs, and the Anabaptists are massacred to the 39:09.780 --> 39:10.500 last person. 39:11.840 --> 39:15.940 The Anabaptists still in the Netherlands reform themselves under the leadership of 39:15.940 --> 39:16.800 Menno Simons. 39:17.200 --> 39:21.600 They denounce all violence and survive in the Netherlands at the fringes of society. 39:22.290 --> 39:25.220 Their descendants will become the Amish and the Mennonites. 39:26.420 --> 39:30.040 Another group influenced by the Anabaptists are the Unitarians. 39:30.780 --> 39:35.280 Their ideas are very similar to the Aryan Christians of the 5th century and agnostic 39:35.280 --> 39:36.900 movements of the High Middle Ages. 39:37.680 --> 39:41.580 They reject the trinity of Father, Son and the Holy Spirit and insist that 39:41.580 --> 39:44.420 God alone is divine, and Jesus was a mere person. 39:45.020 --> 39:48.940 They are also persecuted and finally end up in Poland and Transylvania, 39:49.120 --> 39:51.360 where religious toleration is already the norm. 39:51.960 --> 39:55.960 Later these denominations will spawn numerous offshoots, ending up in England 39:55.960 --> 39:57.580 and from there in the New World. 39:59.240 --> 40:03.040 Shortly after Zwingli's death, the Swiss Confederation again becomes the 40:03.040 --> 40:05.200 center of the Reformation with John Calvin. 40:06.340 --> 40:10.940 Calvin was born in 1509 in Picardy, a full 26 years after Luther. 40:11.740 --> 40:15.400 In his youth he studies law and comes under the influence of the Humanist and 40:15.400 --> 40:16.580 Protestants of Paris. 40:17.280 --> 40:22.300 His awakening and conversion is a slow process, but by the mid 1530s he considers 40:22.300 --> 40:23.460 himself a Protestant. 40:24.660 --> 40:31.140 In 1534 Francis I starts persecuting Protestants, therefore in 1535 Calvin 40:31.140 --> 40:32.200 flees to Basel. 40:33.100 --> 40:37.240 Here he continues his religious studies and starts to formulate his belief in his 40:37.240 --> 40:39.420 book The Institutions of the Christian Religion. 40:40.260 --> 40:44.420 In most questions Calvin agrees with Luther, however on the question of the 40:44.420 --> 40:46.380 Lord's Supper he shares Zwingli's view. 40:46.980 --> 40:51.540 He is also stricter on predestination, claiming that God has already decided not 40:51.540 --> 40:54.200 only who goes to heaven, but also who goes to hell. 40:54.740 --> 40:58.680 There is no way to influence the outcome, or to know who is selected for what. 40:59.040 --> 41:03.520 However Calvin assumes that those who are selected for heaven will live pious and 41:03.520 --> 41:04.520 successful lives. 41:05.380 --> 41:09.680 Little does Calvin know, but this feature will make his teachings very attractive to 41:09.680 --> 41:11.540 virtue signaling middle class. 41:12.640 --> 41:17.480 In 1536 Calvin is on his way to Strasbourg, however he makes a detour to 41:17.480 --> 41:21.200 Geneva, where a fellow reformer, William Farrell is working as a pastor. 41:22.080 --> 41:26.140 Calvin is also hired as a pastor, and the two men begin to reform Geneva. 41:27.060 --> 41:29.160 Here Calvin's real nature comes out. 41:29.980 --> 41:33.780 Like Zwingli, Calvin is mainly concerned with ethics rather than theology. 41:34.540 --> 41:39.200 He is also a reformer, and believes that church and state should work hand in hand 41:39.200 --> 41:43.820 to bring about a total reform of society that would be strictly based on the Bible. 41:44.580 --> 41:48.000 This is much to the displeasure of the nobles and merchants of the city, 41:48.160 --> 41:50.180 as they see it as an attack on their liberties. 41:51.340 --> 41:54.600 In 1538 Calvin and Farrell are asked to leave Geneva. 41:55.400 --> 41:59.540 Calvin receives an invitation from Martin Busser, the reformer of Strasbourg. 42:00.380 --> 42:04.040 Strasbourg was one of the first cities to adopt Lutheranism, and Busser, 42:04.200 --> 42:07.740 its leader and civic reformer is an excellent role model for Calvin. 42:09.000 --> 42:13.640 In 1541 the citizens of Geneva have a change of heart and ask Calvin to come 42:13.640 --> 42:13.960 back. 42:14.600 --> 42:18.280 Calvin agrees on condition that they will let him do the necessary reforms. 42:19.440 --> 42:23.520 Calvin puts the greatest emphasis on religious education, especially of the 42:23.520 --> 42:23.800 young. 42:24.480 --> 42:27.020 He establishes four groups of church officials. 42:27.880 --> 42:32.720 Pastors to preach, doctors to instruct believers in the faith, elders to provide 42:32.720 --> 42:35.340 discipline, and deacons to administer to the poor. 42:36.080 --> 42:40.600 He introduces the consistory, a religious court made up of pastors and laypeople. 42:41.560 --> 42:45.820 He also bans painting, sculpture, music, dancing, swearing, and theater. 42:46.460 --> 42:49.660 However he does allow usury, provided the interest is fair. 42:50.460 --> 42:54.300 Pubs are only allowed to function if scripture is read aloud to the patrons. 42:55.380 --> 42:58.620 Calvin's detractors try to resist, but this is an uphill battle. 42:59.340 --> 43:03.280 Calvin wins argument after argument, and when Protestant refugees arrive from 43:03.280 --> 43:06.140 France, the balance of power shifts in Calvin's favor. 43:07.020 --> 43:09.940 By 1555 his power is unchallenged. 43:10.700 --> 43:15.020 Under his leadership Geneva becomes the most pious, most industrious, and most 43:15.020 --> 43:16.240 orderly city in Europe. 43:16.880 --> 43:18.660 All who visit Geneva are amazed. 43:19.540 --> 43:23.280 Missionaries range far and wide, and Calvin's pamphlets are being read all 43:23.280 --> 43:23.980 across Europe. 43:24.780 --> 43:28.880 The middle and upper classes find it particularly attractive, seeing it as a 43:28.880 --> 43:31.860 more potent and more fashionable form of Protestantism. 43:32.580 --> 43:36.180 Many who were already open to Lutheranism soon become Calvinists. 43:36.840 --> 43:40.440 The southwest of France and the Low Countries soon become bastions of 43:40.440 --> 43:41.100 Calvinism. 43:41.740 --> 43:45.960 In these places Calvinism becomes even more politicized than Lutheranism. 43:46.860 --> 43:50.680 In France the southern aristocrats see Calvinism as a counterweight to the 43:50.680 --> 43:52.680 centralizing policy of the monarchs. 43:53.400 --> 43:57.560 In the Low Countries it becomes a vehicle for the province's quest for autonomy and 43:57.560 --> 43:58.640 later independence. 43:59.540 --> 44:04.120 As the Counter-Reformation kicks into high gear, Calvinism and Catholicism are on a 44:04.120 --> 44:04.800 crash course. 44:05.780 --> 44:08.080 Many fear that war cannot be averted. 44:14.960 --> 44:16.760 It's the 1530s. 44:17.660 --> 44:21.880 While Calvin is working on his theory, in Germany there is a sort of Cold War. 44:22.500 --> 44:26.360 The religious peace of 1532 is holding, but just barely. 44:27.100 --> 44:30.640 The emperor is just as eager to crush the rebellious Protestant princes, 44:30.860 --> 44:34.260 but for now he is still embroiled in a vicious war on three fronts with the 44:34.260 --> 44:35.420 Ottomans and the French. 44:36.000 --> 44:39.880 He absolutely needs the help of the princes, therefore he must accommodate 44:39.880 --> 44:41.640 even the most bellicose ones. 44:42.820 --> 44:47.300 John Frederick I, Elector of Saxony and Philip of Hesse are on a warpath. 44:47.900 --> 44:52.360 They have a longstanding feud with Duke Henry of Brunswick the last Catholic 44:52.360 --> 44:53.240 prince in the north. 44:54.160 --> 44:58.600 In 1541, when the duke attacks the Protestant city of Goslar, the two princes 44:58.600 --> 45:00.880 mobilize against him and occupy his dukedom. 45:01.660 --> 45:06.020 Church property is ceased, and the dukedom is forcefully converted to Protestantism. 45:06.920 --> 45:10.700 The emperor tries to help Henry, however at this time he can barely spare 45:10.700 --> 45:13.760 any resources, so Henry is defeated again and imprisoned. 45:15.120 --> 45:18.480 But not everyone is as eager about punishing the duke and forcefully 45:18.480 --> 45:19.480 converting Catholics. 45:20.040 --> 45:23.880 The southern states and cities of the Schmalkaldic League see this as a 45:23.880 --> 45:27.940 foolhardy gamble that will surely result in the ruin of the Protestant cause. 45:28.860 --> 45:32.720 Instead of strengthening the League, this show of force weakens and divides it. 45:34.120 --> 45:36.240 Meanwhile fortune is turning for Charles. 45:37.240 --> 45:41.580 In 1544 he makes peace with France and a few years later with the Ottomans. 45:42.040 --> 45:46.680 Now he can finally focus all his power and energy on his German subjects who are in 45:46.680 --> 45:47.460 open rebellion. 45:48.260 --> 45:52.140 But even though Charles is acting in the name of Catholicism, he cannot count on 45:52.140 --> 45:56.520 the support of Catholic princes who are just as skeptical of imperial power as the 45:56.520 --> 45:57.200 Protestants. 45:57.900 --> 46:01.880 The most Charles can get is their neutrality, therefore he must gather his 46:01.880 --> 46:04.520 own Habsburg forces from all across the empire. 46:05.900 --> 46:07.580 This however will take time. 46:08.860 --> 46:11.320 The League's plan hinges precisely on this fact. 46:11.740 --> 46:16.240 They can mobilize and concentrate their forces faster, therefore they can attack 46:16.240 --> 46:19.460 preemptively and defeat the Emperor's forces one by one. 46:20.560 --> 46:24.860 In 1546 they go on the attack, catching the Emperor by surprise and 46:24.860 --> 46:26.360 forcing him to retreat south. 46:27.660 --> 46:32.000 Next they strike into Tyrol, but due to John Frederick's ineptitude they fail to 46:32.000 --> 46:34.880 prevent Italian reinforcements from linking up with Charles. 46:35.880 --> 46:38.100 This is when the Emperor strikes back. 46:38.780 --> 46:40.460 He has an ace up his sleeves. 46:41.600 --> 46:45.500 Decades ago Saxony had been split between two lines of the same dynasty. 46:46.140 --> 46:50.520 The Ernestine line represented by John Frederick rules the Electorate of Saxony, 46:51.000 --> 46:55.180 and his cousin Maurice of Saxony of the Albertine line rules the Dukedom of 46:55.180 --> 46:55.660 Saxony. 46:56.440 --> 47:00.320 Maurice is a Protestant and a member of the League, however Charles had already 47:00.320 --> 47:04.120 bought his favor, promising a rich reward if he turned against his own side. 47:04.840 --> 47:09.040 Just as League forces almost grasp victory in the south, Maurice and Archduke 47:09.040 --> 47:11.120 Ferdinand launch an attack in the north. 47:12.080 --> 47:16.160 John Frederick has no other choice but to take his forces north to defend his lands. 47:17.160 --> 47:21.100 Charles immediately seizes the opportunity and moves to pacify the south. 47:21.760 --> 47:25.280 His forces are led by the Duke of Alba, the best general of his time. 47:26.160 --> 47:29.640 The southern Protestants, who were already reluctant participants in the war, 47:29.800 --> 47:31.660 quickly yield before the imperial army. 47:32.640 --> 47:36.060 Meanwhile John Frederick successfully defends his lands and gathers 47:36.060 --> 47:40.400 reinforcements, however he has to send part of his army into Bohemia to block 47:40.400 --> 47:41.660 Maurice and Ferdinand. 47:42.720 --> 47:45.080 Meanwhile Alba marches north unopposed. 47:45.800 --> 47:48.860 His army already outnumbers John Frederick's by 2 to 1. 47:49.660 --> 47:55.120 On the 23rd of April 1547 he stealthily crosses the river Elbe and utterly crushes 47:55.120 --> 47:55.920 the Protestants. 47:56.800 --> 47:59.440 John Frederick is captured and the League falls apart. 48:00.360 --> 48:03.120 Philip of Hesse quickly surrenders and is also imprisoned. 48:04.640 --> 48:08.740 Seemingly the Protestants are finished, however as soon as the emperor turns his 48:08.740 --> 48:12.380 back, resistance continues to simmer, now centered around Magdeburg. 48:13.240 --> 48:16.860 Charles wants to end the war at all costs, so he proposes a compromise. 48:17.780 --> 48:22.540 The Augsburg Interim of 1548 gives a little and takes a little, leaving both 48:22.540 --> 48:24.560 Catholics and Protestants unsatisfied. 48:25.460 --> 48:28.960 The Protestants form a new league and secretly agree with the French to attack 48:28.960 --> 48:30.400 the emperor from two sides. 48:31.040 --> 48:34.940 The unlikely leader of this new league is none other than Maurice of Saxony. 48:35.720 --> 48:38.920 Even though the emperor made him the elector of Saxony, he is still 48:38.920 --> 48:39.660 unsatisfied. 48:40.400 --> 48:43.400 He is a German first and a subject of the emperor's second. 48:44.740 --> 48:50.320 In the autumn of 1551 the French attack along the Rhine, and in spring 1552 the 48:50.320 --> 48:52.180 princes launch an attack against Tirol. 48:53.400 --> 48:57.460 Charles is desperate to avoid another war on two fronts, so he is forced to give the 48:57.460 --> 48:58.760 Protestants a better deal. 48:59.540 --> 49:04.580 In 1555 the Peace of Augsburg is proclaimed, reinstating the cuius regio 49:04.580 --> 49:09.340 eius religio principle, meaning Protestant princes are free to choose the religion of 49:09.340 --> 49:09.980 their states. 49:10.640 --> 49:13.460 This freedom however only refers to Lutherans. 49:14.200 --> 49:17.400 Calvinists are not included and may be persecuted as heretics. 49:18.380 --> 49:22.020 This aspect is most unfortunate, as Calvinism had just begun its 49:22.020 --> 49:25.440 exponential rise all across Europe and within the Empire. 49:27.240 --> 49:30.660 While all this was going on, Catholics were not sitting still. 49:31.840 --> 49:35.160 Preoccupation with Church reform is not exclusive to Protestants. 49:35.780 --> 49:39.840 The first Pope to seriously consider internal reform is Adrian VI. 49:40.860 --> 49:45.200 Adrian is Dutch and is thus far removed from Italian dynastic politics that 49:45.200 --> 49:47.660 prevented reform during the reign of Leo X. 49:48.540 --> 49:53.480 His papacy however is short-lived, lasting from 1522 to 1523. 49:54.360 --> 49:58.840 Adrian's reign is again followed by 11 years of ineffective Popes preoccupied 49:58.840 --> 49:59.940 with Italian affairs. 50:01.540 --> 50:07.380 In 1534 however, the reformer Paul III is elected, and his papacy will last for 15 50:07.380 --> 50:11.580 years, giving him ample time to launch a vigorous reaction to Protestantism. 50:12.380 --> 50:16.560 Paul recognizes that such things as simony, absenteeism, pluralism, 50:16.640 --> 50:20.000 nepotism and the mass sales of indulgences cannot continue. 50:20.700 --> 50:23.400 Therefore these aspects are purged from the Church. 50:24.240 --> 50:28.240 Paul also recognizes the importance of education, not just for the higher 50:28.240 --> 50:32.840 echelons of the clergy, but also for the humble parish priest, who up until now was 50:32.840 --> 50:33.740 barely literate. 50:34.560 --> 50:38.100 To make sure that his reforms will continue after his death, Paul only 50:38.100 --> 50:40.860 appoints fellow reformers to the College of Cardinals. 50:41.820 --> 50:46.480 His biggest achievement however is the Council of Trent convened in 1545. 50:47.520 --> 50:51.240 This grand council of bishops, cardinals and religious scholars from all 50:51.240 --> 50:55.160 across Europe lasts for 18 years, and will prove to be a milestone of 50:55.160 --> 50:55.900 Catholicism. 50:56.660 --> 51:00.480 The council affirms that the Bible is not the only authority in religion, 51:00.780 --> 51:04.460 but in fact authority is shared between the Pope, the religious councils, 51:04.680 --> 51:06.920 various Catholic traditions and the Bible. 51:07.700 --> 51:12.220 Also they recognize that the 5th century Latin translation of the Bible is the 51:12.220 --> 51:12.960 official one. 51:13.640 --> 51:17.920 They reaffirm the 7 sacraments of the Church, and that salvation can be achieved 51:17.920 --> 51:19.540 through faith and good works. 51:20.220 --> 51:24.420 They stand by the elaborate ceremonies of the Church, as these are done to celebrate 51:24.420 --> 51:25.480 the glory of God. 51:26.380 --> 51:31.020 The council also stands by the concept of transubstantiation, meaning members of the 51:31.020 --> 51:34.820 clergy do have special powers, and therefore they should have a special 51:34.820 --> 51:36.280 status within society. 51:37.160 --> 51:41.340 All these assertions and reassertions are very important to strengthen the base, 51:41.440 --> 51:45.080 and to show a united front to the Protestants and also to those who are 51:45.080 --> 51:45.700 wavering. 51:47.860 --> 51:51.620 Parallel to the Council of Trent, a new religious order is being set up. 51:52.360 --> 51:56.540 Ignatius of Loyola establishes the militant order of the Society of Jesus, 51:56.760 --> 51:58.280 otherwise known as the Jesuits. 51:59.280 --> 52:02.280 Loyola had been a soldier fighting in the Emperor's service. 52:03.140 --> 52:06.700 After he was wounded, he withdrew to a monastery where he had a vision of God 52:06.700 --> 52:08.120 that lasted for 8 days. 52:09.000 --> 52:13.580 Awakened to his new purpose, Loyola writes The Spiritual Exercises, a self-help book 52:13.580 --> 52:17.020 focusing on meditation and developing a deep religious calling. 52:17.960 --> 52:23.300 Loyola soon gathers a cadre of loyal followers, and in 1540 Paul III grants him 52:23.300 --> 52:25.320 permission to establish a religious order. 52:26.020 --> 52:29.120 The Jesuits prove to be a nemesis to the Protestants. 52:29.680 --> 52:34.540 They recognize that Protestantism grew out of the universities, therefore they place 52:34.540 --> 52:36.540 an even greater emphasis on education. 52:37.660 --> 52:41.500 Jesuits are like soldiers, armed with the most up-to-date knowledge and the best 52:41.500 --> 52:42.440 debating skills. 52:43.240 --> 52:47.280 They are often the bridge between church and state, most Catholic princes having a 52:47.280 --> 52:48.660 Jesuit advisor or two. 52:49.560 --> 52:53.340 In Catholic countries courts of inquisition are set up, and an index of 52:53.340 --> 52:57.640 forbidden books is published, making sure that all future heresy is nipped in the 52:57.640 --> 52:57.880 bud. 52:58.980 --> 53:02.600 Protestantism is finally contained, and will not spread any further than it 53:02.600 --> 53:03.340 already did. 53:04.520 --> 53:09.000 But by the 1550s with the rise of Calvinism, Europe is already a powder keg 53:09.000 --> 53:10.040 waiting to explode. 53:10.720 --> 53:14.560 It is true that even in Catholic France and the Habsburg Netherlands there is a 53:14.560 --> 53:18.240 sort of accommodation with Protestantism, but this does not mean religious 53:18.240 --> 53:18.760 tolerance. 53:19.520 --> 53:23.560 Catholics, Lutherans and Calvinists all live in the designated enclaves. 53:24.300 --> 53:28.880 With rare exceptions like Transylvania or Poland, confessionalism becomes the norm. 53:29.740 --> 53:33.520 This means that in Lutheran states one must agree to the points laid out in the 53:33.520 --> 53:34.440 Augsburg Confession. 53:35.000 --> 53:39.080 In Catholic countries one must conform to the decisions of the Council of Trent, 53:39.660 --> 53:43.800 and in Calvinist lands one must agree to the confessions of faith of Calvin and 53:43.800 --> 53:45.440 various other Calvinist scholars. 53:46.220 --> 53:50.640 In the Holy Roman Empire the Peace of Augsburg will hold until 1618, 53:51.060 --> 53:55.220 however in France and the Low Countries, Calvinists are on a collision course with 53:55.220 --> 53:55.700 Catholics. 53:56.360 --> 54:00.400 The French Wars of Religion and the Dutch Revolt will be followed by the bloodiest 54:00.400 --> 54:03.480 period of European history, the Thirty Years' War.